![]() Degeneration of tissue or organ (e.g., due to malnutrition or hereditary disease).Neurogenic atrophy: muscular atrophy via degeneration of neuromuscular transmission.Localized atrophy: inactivity, pressure-induced atrophy, loss of hormonal stimulation (e.g., osteoporosis), ischemia (oxygen/substrate shortage), chronic inflammation.Generalized atrophy: catabolism, malnutrition, cancer anorexia-cachexia syndrome.Formed by the peroxidation of polyunsaturated lipids of subcellular membranes.Yellow-brown, granular pigments found in organs such as the heart, lung, colon, kidney, liver, and eye.Composed of lipid polymers and phospholipid-protein complexes.Includes the formation of lipofuscin deposits.Physiological aging of cells that affects all organs.Involution: Organs are temporarily enlarged and then undergo degradation via atrophic processes (e.g., thymus, breast).Electron microscopy shows the presence of autophagosomes.Degradation of cytoskeletal proteins occurs via the ubiquitin-proteasome pathway.Numerical atrophy: reduction in cell number (e.g., due to apoptosis).Hypotrophy (simple atrophy): tissue degeneration caused by a decrease in protein synthesis and cell content (e.g., organelles, cytoskeleton).This article provides an overview of the main cellular adaptive mechanisms and their different consequences in the human body. If cells are not able to adapt to the adverse environmental changes, cell death occurs physiologically in the form of apoptosis, or pathologically, in the form of necrosis. For example, labile tissue such as the skin can rapidly replicate, and therefore can also regenerate after injury, whereas permanent tissue such as neural and cardiac tissue cannot regenerate after injury. Tissues adapt differently depending on the replicative characteristics of the cells that make up the tissue. These adaptations include hypertrophy (enlargement of individual cells), hyperplasia (increase in cell number), atrophy (reduction in size and cell number), metaplasia (transformation from one type of epithelium to another), and dysplasia (disordered growth of cells). Cellular adaptation is the ability of cells to respond to various types of stimuli and adverse environmental changes.
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